Hebrew Poetry

A. Poetry in general

• Poetic form—there are lots of standard forms (Allen p.28)

• The nature of poetry: not a “pretty rhyme” but intensified language Allen p.41–50
  • The Eagle by Alfred Tenneyson
     
    He clasps the crag with crooked hands;
    close to the sun in lonely lands,
    Ringed with the azure world he stands.
     
    The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls;
    He watches from his mountain walls,
    And like a thunderbold he falls.
     
  • unfortunate that some Bible paraphrases remove much of the poetry
• Misconceptions in poetry
  1. The idea that literal meaning and poetic meaning are somehow opposed
     • We use poetic language all the time in everyday speech, even something as mundane as a sports commentary
     • “the bases are loaded”, “It’s not over till the fat lady sings”
  2. The notion that poetry is always imprecise and ambiguous

Where do we find poetry in the Bible?

• Old Testament: almost 1/2 of the Old Testament is poetry.
  • Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Psalms
  • Large parts of the Prophets: Hosea (entire), Micah, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Isaiah, Jeremiah
  • Songs in narrative books: Genesis 49, Exodus 15:1–18, Deuteronomy 32 and 33, Judges 5, 1 Samuel 2:1–10, 2 Samuel 1:19–27, 1 Kings 12:16, 2 Kings 19: 21–34
• New Testament: we do not find as much poetry in the New Testament as in the Old Testament.
  • However there is some
    • Quotation from O.T. poetry
    • Songs are included in several places (e.g. Col 1:15–20)

B. Parallelism

(Much of this section is borrowed from Ross)

• The basic feature of biblical poetry is the recurrent use of a relatively short sentence-form that consists of two (or more) brief clauses:
  By day the Lord sends forth his love
  and at night his song is with me. (Psalm 42:9)
• The clauses are regularly separated by a slight pause, for the second part is a continuation of the first and not a completely new beginning.
• On occasion, four parts may form the line.
• The relationship between the parts of a line is called “parallelism”.

C. Types of Parallelism

• Robert Lowthe is the man credited with the “discovery” of biblical parallelism (in 1753).
• He distinguished three types: synonymous, antithetical, and synthetic.
• The third category, “synthetic,” became sort of a catch-all for what would not fit the others.

1. Complete Parallelism

• Every single term or thought unit in one line is parallel to an equivalent term or unit in the other line.
  • Find an example in Psalm 6
• Complete parallelism can be subdivided into:

1. Synonymous Parallelism
   • where the thought is repeated by the second line in different but synonymous words.
     Then Israel / came / to Egypt;
     Jacob / sojourned / in the land of Ham. (Ps. 105:23)
   • another example (Isaiah 1:3).
     The ox knows his master
       the donkey his owner’s manger,
     but Israel does not know
       my people do not understand
   • The order of the parallel terms need not be the same in both lines;
   • Find another example in Psalm 6
2. Antithetical Parallelism
   • balances the parallel lines through the opposition or contrast of thought, as in 90:6:
     In the morning / it flourishes / and is renewed;
     in the evening / it fades / and withers.
   • Any in Psalm 126 ? What about Proverbs 10
3. Emblematic Parallelism
   • one of the parallels is literal, the other a simile or a metaphor
     As the deer pants for the waterbrooks, ⇐ literal
     So pants my soul for you, O God” ⇐ figurative (Psalm 42:1)
     As a father / has compassion on / his children,
     so the Lord / has compassion on / those who fear Him. (Ps. 103:13)
   • see also Psalm 18:16
4. Inverted or Chiastic Parallelism
   • strictly speaking a form of synonymous parallelism;
   • the main difference is that the order of the terms is inverted, like a mirror image
   • A clear example is found in Isaiah 11:13b:
     Ephraim / shall not be jealous of / Judah,
     and Judah / shall not harass / Ephraim.
   • These are not always complete or perfectly balanced
   • Another example from Isaiah 1:18

2. Incomplete Parallelism

• This type of parallelism is very frequent with many variations.
• Only some of the terms are parallel

1. Incomplete Parallelism with Compensation
   • only some of the terms are parallel e.g. Psalm 6:1
   • but each line has the same number of units (usually clear in English, but clearer in Hebrew).
     You will destroy / their offspring / from the earth,
     and their children/from among the sons of/men. (21:11)
2. Incomplete Parallelism
   • one line is longer than the other, as in 6:2 (MT 6:3):
     O Lord, / rebuke me / not in your anger,
     nor chasten me / in your wrath.
   • On occasion Lowthe’s old category of synthetic parallelism may be helpful.
   • In that type the second part further develops the first:
     For the Lord is a great God,
     and a great King above all gods (Ps. 95:3).

3. Formal Parallelism

• Not really parallelism
• the second colon simply continues the thought of the first
  I have set / my king
  on Zion / my holy hill. (Ps. 2:6)

4. External parallelism

• the correspondence occurs between successive verses, as in Isaiah 53:5:
  But he was pierced / for our transgressions;
      he was crushed / for our iniquities;
  upon him was the punishment / that brought us peace,
      and with his wounds / we are healed.
• see also Psalm 6:1,2

5. Climactic (Staircase) parallelism

• A type of synthetic parallelism. A part of the first line is repeated, and then newer elements are added to build up to a climax.
• Example: Psalm 29:1, 2a
  Give unto the Lord,
      O you mighty ones,
  Give unto the Lord
          Glory and strength.
  Give unto the Lord
              the glory due to his name;
  Worship the Lord
                  in the beauty of holiness.

Understanding parallelism helps in interpretation.

• When we know that lines of poetry are related, then we can look for the relationship, and that will help us to understand the meaning.
• Example (Psalm 22:16):
  For dogs have surrounded me;
  The congregation of the wicked has enclosed me,
  They pierced my hands and my feet.”
• Understanding the Psalm:
  • It is possible that the psalmist was surrounded by a pack of real dogs, but it is unlikely. If this is an example of emblematic parallelism, then we realize that “dogs” is a figurative way of speaking about the “wicked” in the second line.
  • When we read the rest of the psalm, the context of this verse, we notice references to several other animals: “worm” (v.6), “bulls” (v.12), “lions” (v.21), and “oxen” (v.21).
  • Rational thinking would tell us that they are not literal animals. This lends support to our interpretation.
  • The third line reinforces it further.
  • This psalm is typological: although rooted in history, it points ahead to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. The animal imagery emphasizes the horror of that terrible event.

Praise! A matter of life and breath by Ronald Barclay Allen (Nashville:Nelsons, 1980)